Adaptive Realities: Human-in-the-Loop AI for Trustworthy XR Training in Safety-Critical Domains

Extended Reality (XR) technologies have matured into powerful tools for training in highstakes
domains, from emergency response to search and rescue. Yet current systems often struggle to balance real-time AI-driven personalisation with the need for human oversight and calibrated trust. This article synthesizes the programmatic contributions of a multistudy doctoral project to advance a design-and-evaluation framework for trustworthy adaptive XR training. Across six studies, we explored (i) recommender-driven scenario adaptation based on multimodal performance and physiological signals, (ii) persuasive dashboards for trainers, (iii) architectures for AI-supported XR training in medical masscasualty contexts, (iv) theoretical and practical integration of Human-in-the-Loop (HITL) supervision, (v) user trust and over-reliance in the face of misleading AI suggestions, and (vi) the role of interaction modality in shaping workload, explainability, and trust in human–robot collaboration. Together, these investigations show how adaptive policies, transparent explanation, and adjustable autonomy can be orchestrated into a single adaptation loop that maintains trainee engagement, improves learning outcomes, and preserves trainer agency. We conclude with design guidelines and a research agenda for extending trustworthy XR training into safety-critical environments.